# AI News, Anomaly Detection for Time Series Data with Deep Learning

## Anomaly Detection for Time Series Data with Deep Learning

More recently, machine learning has entered the public consciousness because of advances in &quot;deep learning&quot;&ndash;these include AlphaGo&#39;s defeat of Go grandmaster Lee Sedol and impressive new products around image recognition and machine translation.

The increasing accuracy of deep neural networks for solving problems such as speech and image recognition has stoked attention and research devoted to deep learning and AI more generally.

This article introduces neural networks, including brief descriptions of feed-forward neural networks and recurrent neural networks, and describes how to build a recurrent neural network that detects anomalies in time series data.

By building a system of connected artificial neurons we obtain systems that can be trained to learn higher-level patterns in data and perform useful functions such as regression, classification, clustering, and prediction.

An artificial neural network is a collection of compute nodes where data represented as a numeric array is passed into a network&rsquo;s input layer and proceeds through the network&rsquo;s so-called hidden layers until an output or decision about the data is generated in a process described briefly below.

The net&rsquo;s resulting output is then compared to expected results (ground-truth labels applied to the data, for example), and the difference between the network&rsquo;s guess and the right answer is used to incrementally correct the activation thresholds of the net&rsquo;s nodes.

That input data passes through the coefficients, or parameters, of the net and through multiplication those coefficients will amplify or mute the input, depending on its learned importance&mdash;that is, whether or not that pixel should affect the net&rsquo;s decision about the entire input.

The error is calculated by comparing the net&rsquo;s guess to the true answer contained in a test set, and using that error, the coefficients of the network are updated in order to change how the net assigns importance to different pixels in the image.

While deep learning is a complicated process involving matrix algebra, derivatives, probability and intensive hardware utilization as large matrices of coefficients are modified, the end user does not need to be exposed to all the complexity.

Computing power has increased with the advent of GPUs to increase the speed of the matrix operations, as well as with larger distributed computing frameworks, making it possible to train neural nets faster and iterate quickly through many combinations of hyperparameters to find the right architecture.

Finally, advances in how we understand and build the neural network algorithms have resulted in neural networks consistently setting new accuracy records in competitions for computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation and many other machine perception and goal-oriented tasks.

Those lines are known as features and the as the filters pass over the image, they construct feature maps locating each kind of line each time it occurs at different places in the image.

Convolutional networks have proven very useful in the field of image and video recognition (and because sound can be represented visually in the form of a spectrogram, convolutional networks are widely used for voice recognition and machine transcription tasks as well).

While a convolutional neural network steps through overlapping sections of the image and trains by learning to recognize features in each section, a feed forward network trains on the complete image.

A feed forward network trained on images where a feature is always in a particular position or orientation may not recognize when that feature shows up in an uncommon position, while a convolutional network would if trained well.

Unlike feed-forward neural networks, the hidden layer nodes of a recurrent neural network maintain an internal state, a memory, that is updated with new input the network is fed.

Although this might be possible with a typical feed-forward network that ingests a window of events, and subsequently moves that window through time, such an approach would limit us to dependencies captured by the window, and the solution would not be flexible.

The internet has multiple examples of using RNNs for generating text, one character at a time, after being trained on a corpus of text to predict the next letter given what&rsquo;s gone before.

Just as a character generator understands the structure of data well enough to generate a simulacrum of it, an RNN used for anomaly detection understands the structure of the data well enough to know whether what it is fed looks normal, or not...

An RNN trained on normal network activity would perceive a network intrusion to be as anomalous as a sentence without punctuation Suppose we wanted to detect network anomalies with the understanding that an anomaly might point to hardware failure, application failure, or an intrusion.

By feeding a large volume of network activity logs, with each log line a time step, to the RNN, the neural net will learn what normal expected network activity looks like.

Training a neural net to recognize expected behavior has an advantage, because it is rare to have a large volume of abnormal data, or certainly not enough to accurately classify all abnormal behavior.

As an aside, the trained network does not necessarily note that certain activities happen at certain times (it does not know that a particular day is Sunday), but it does notice those more obvious temporal patterns we would be aware of, along with other connections between events that might not be apparent.

Running training on GPUs will lead to a significant decrease in training time, especially for image recognition, but additional hardware comes with additional cost, so it&rsquo;s important that your deep-learning framework use hardware as efficiently as possible.

When performing network anomaly detection in production, log files need to be serialized into the same format that the model trained on, and based on the output of the neural network, you would get reports on whether the current activity was in the range of normal expected network behavior.

The configuration of a recurrent neural network might look something like this: Let&rsquo;s describe a few important lines of this code: sets a random seed to initialize the neural net&rsquo;s weights, in order to obtain reproducible results.

When using stochastic gradient descent, the error gradient (that is, the relation of a change in coefficients to a change in the net&rsquo;s error) is calculated and the weights are moved along this gradient in an attempt to move the error towards a minimum.

More recently, machine learning has entered the public consciousness because of advances in &quot;deep learning&quot;&ndash;these include AlphaGo&#39;s defeat of Go grandmaster Lee Sedol and impressive new products around image recognition and machine translation.

## Machine Learning is Fun! Part 3: Deep Learning and Convolutional Neural Networks

First, the good news is that our “8” recognizer really does work well on simple images where the letter is right in the middle of the image: But now the really bad news: Our “8” recognizer totally fails to work when the letter isn’t perfectly centered in the image.

We can just write a script to generate new images with the “8”s in all kinds of different positions in the image: Using this technique, we can easily create an endless supply of training data.

But once we figured out how to use 3d graphics cards (which were designed to do matrix multiplication really fast) instead of normal computer processors, working with large neural networks suddenly became practical.

It doesn’t make sense to train a network to recognize an “8” at the top of a picture separately from training it to recognize an “8” at the bottom of a picture as if those were two totally different objects.

Instead of feeding entire images into our neural network as one grid of numbers, we’re going to do something a lot smarter that takes advantage of the idea that an object is the same no matter where it appears in a picture.

Here’s how it’s going to work, step by step — Similar to our sliding window search above, let’s pass a sliding window over the entire original image and save each result as a separate, tiny picture tile: By doing this, we turned our original image into 77 equally-sized tiny image tiles.

We’ll do the exact same thing here, but we’ll do it for each individual image tile: However, there’s one big twist: We’ll keep the same neural network weights for every single tile in the same original image.

It looks like this: In other words, we’ve started with a large image and we ended with a slightly smaller array that records which sections of our original image were the most interesting.

We’ll just look at each 2x2 square of the array and keep the biggest number: The idea here is that if we found something interesting in any of the four input tiles that makes up each 2x2 grid square, we’ll just keep the most interesting bit.

So from start to finish, our whole five-step pipeline looks like this: Our image processing pipeline is a series of steps: convolution, max-pooling, and finally a fully-connected network.

For example, the first convolution step might learn to recognize sharp edges, the second convolution step might recognize beaks using it’s knowledge of sharp edges, the third step might recognize entire birds using it’s knowledge of beaks, etc.

Here’s what a more realistic deep convolutional network (like you would find in a research paper) looks like: In this case, they start a 224 x 224 pixel image, apply convolution and max pooling twice, apply convolution 3 more times, apply max pooling and then have two fully-connected layers.

## Deep learning

In the last chapter we learned that deep neural networks are often much harder to train than shallow neural networks.

We'll also look at the broader picture, briefly reviewing recent progress on using deep nets for image recognition, speech recognition, and other applications.

We'll work through a detailed example - code and all - of using convolutional nets to solve the problem of classifying handwritten digits from the MNIST data set:

As we go we'll explore many powerful techniques: convolutions, pooling, the use of GPUs to do far more training than we did with our shallow networks, the algorithmic expansion of our training data (to reduce overfitting), the use of the dropout technique (also to reduce overfitting), the use of ensembles of networks, and others.

We conclude our discussion of image recognition with a survey of some of the spectacular recent progress using networks (particularly convolutional nets) to do image recognition.

We'll briefly survey other models of neural networks, such as recurrent neural nets and long short-term memory units, and how such models can be applied to problems in speech recognition, natural language processing, and other areas.

And we'll speculate about the future of neural networks and deep learning, ranging from ideas like intention-driven user interfaces, to the role of deep learning in artificial intelligence.

For the $28 \times 28$ pixel images we've been using, this means our network has $784$ ($= 28 \times 28$) input neurons.

Our earlier networks work pretty well: we've obtained a classification accuracy better than 98 percent, using training and test data from the MNIST handwritten digit data set.

But the seminal paper establishing the modern subject of convolutional networks was a 1998 paper, 'Gradient-based learning applied to document recognition', by Yann LeCun, Léon Bottou, Yoshua Bengio, and Patrick Haffner.

LeCun has since made an interesting remark on the terminology for convolutional nets: 'The [biological] neural inspiration in models like convolutional nets is very tenuous.

That's why I call them 'convolutional nets' not 'convolutional neural nets', and why we call the nodes 'units' and not 'neurons' '.

Despite this remark, convolutional nets use many of the same ideas as the neural networks we've studied up to now: ideas such as backpropagation, gradient descent, regularization, non-linear activation functions, and so on.

In a convolutional net, it'll help to think instead of the inputs as a $28 \times 28$ square of neurons, whose values correspond to the $28 \times 28$ pixel intensities we're using as inputs:

To be more precise, each neuron in the first hidden layer will be connected to a small region of the input neurons, say, for example, a $5 \times 5$ region, corresponding to $25$ input pixels.

So, for a particular hidden neuron, we might have connections that look like this: That region in the input image is called the local receptive field for the hidden neuron.

To illustrate this concretely, let's start with a local receptive field in the top-left corner: Then we slide the local receptive field over by one pixel to the right (i.e., by one neuron), to connect to a second hidden neuron:

Note that if we have a $28 \times 28$ input image, and $5 \times 5$ local receptive fields, then there will be $24 \times 24$ neurons in the hidden layer.

This is because we can only move the local receptive field $23$ neurons across (or $23$ neurons down), before colliding with the right-hand side (or bottom) of the input image.

In this chapter we'll mostly stick with stride length $1$, but it's worth knowing that people sometimes experiment with different stride lengths* *As was done in earlier chapters, if we're interested in trying different stride lengths then we can use validation data to pick out the stride length which gives the best performance.

The same approach may also be used to choose the size of the local receptive field - there is, of course, nothing special about using a $5 \times 5$ local receptive field.

In general, larger local receptive fields tend to be helpful when the input images are significantly larger than the $28 \times 28$ pixel MNIST images..

In other words, for the $j, k$th hidden neuron, the output is: \begin{eqnarray} \sigma\left(b + \sum_{l=0}^4 \sum_{m=0}^4 w_{l,m} a_{j+l, k+m} \right).

Informally, think of the feature detected by a hidden neuron as the kind of input pattern that will cause the neuron to activate: it might be an edge in the image, for instance, or maybe some other type of shape.

To see why this makes sense, suppose the weights and bias are such that the hidden neuron can pick out, say, a vertical edge in a particular local receptive field.

To put it in slightly more abstract terms, convolutional networks are well adapted to the translation invariance of images: move a picture of a cat (say) a little ways, and it's still an image of a cat* *In fact, for the MNIST digit classification problem we've been studying, the images are centered and size-normalized.

One of the early convolutional networks, LeNet-5, used $6$ feature maps, each associated to a $5 \times 5$ local receptive field, to recognize MNIST digits.

Let's take a quick peek at some of the features which are learned* *The feature maps illustrated come from the final convolutional network we train, see here.:

Each map is represented as a $5 \times 5$ block image, corresponding to the $5 \times 5$ weights in the local receptive field.

By comparison, suppose we had a fully connected first layer, with $784 = 28 \times 28$ input neurons, and a relatively modest $30$ hidden neurons, as we used in many of the examples earlier in the book.

That, in turn, will result in faster training for the convolutional model, and, ultimately, will help us build deep networks using convolutional layers.

Incidentally, the name convolutional comes from the fact that the operation in Equation (125)\begin{eqnarray} \sigma\left(b + \sum_{l=0}^4 \sum_{m=0}^4 w_{l,m} a_{j+l, k+m} \right) \nonumber\end{eqnarray}$('#margin_223550267310_reveal').click(function() {$('#margin_223550267310').toggle('slow', function() {});});

A little more precisely, people sometimes write that equation as $a^1 = \sigma(b + w * a^0)$, where $a^1$ denotes the set of output activations from one feature map, $a^0$ is the set of input activations, and $*$ is called a convolution operation.

In particular, I'm using 'feature map' to mean not the function computed by the convolutional layer, but rather the activation of the hidden neurons output from the layer.

In max-pooling, a pooling unit simply outputs the maximum activation in the $2 \times 2$ input region, as illustrated in the following diagram:

Note that since we have $24 \times 24$ neurons output from the convolutional layer, after pooling we have $12 \times 12$ neurons.

So if there were three feature maps, the combined convolutional and max-pooling layers would look like:

Here, instead of taking the maximum activation of a $2 \times 2$ region of neurons, we take the square root of the sum of the squares of the activations in the $2 \times 2$ region.

It's similar to the architecture we were just looking at, but has the addition of a layer of $10$ output neurons, corresponding to the $10$ possible values for MNIST digits ('0', '1', '2', etc):

Problem Backpropagation in a convolutional network The core equations of backpropagation in a network with fully-connected layers are (BP1)\begin{eqnarray} \delta^L_j = \frac{\partial C}{\partial a^L_j} \sigma'(z^L_j) \nonumber\end{eqnarray}$('#margin_511945174620_reveal').click(function() {$('#margin_511945174620').toggle('slow', function() {});});-(BP4)\begin{eqnarray} \frac{\partial C}{\partial w^l_{jk}} = a^{l-1}_k \delta^l_j \nonumber\end{eqnarray}$('#margin_896578903066_reveal').click(function() {$('#margin_896578903066').toggle('slow', function() {});});

Suppose we have a network containing a convolutional layer, a max-pooling layer, and a fully-connected output layer, as in the network discussed above.

The program we'll use to do this is called network3.py, and it's an improved version of the programs network.py and network2.py developed in earlier chapters* *Note also that network3.py incorporates ideas from the Theano library's documentation on convolutional neural nets (notably the implementation of LeNet-5), from Misha Denil's implementation of dropout, and from Chris Olah..

But now that we understand those details, for network3.py we're going to use a machine learning library known as Theano* *See Theano: A CPU and GPU Math Expression Compiler in Python, by James Bergstra, Olivier Breuleux, Frederic Bastien, Pascal Lamblin, Ravzan Pascanu, Guillaume Desjardins, Joseph Turian, David Warde-Farley, and Yoshua Bengio (2010).

The examples which follow were run using Theano 0.6* *As I release this chapter, the current version of Theano has changed to version 0.7.

Note that the code in the script simply duplicates and parallels the discussion in this section.Note also that throughout the section I've explicitly specified the number of training epochs.

In practice, it's worth using early stopping, that is, tracking accuracy on the validation set, and stopping training when we are confident the validation accuracy has stopped improving.: &gt;&gt;&gt;

Using the validation data to decide when to evaluate the test accuracy helps avoid overfitting to the test data (see this earlier discussion of the use of validation data).

Your results may vary slightly, since the network's weights and biases are randomly initialized* *In fact, in this experiment I actually did three separate runs training a network with this architecture.

This $97.80$ percent accuracy is close to the $98.04$ percent accuracy obtained back in Chapter 3, using a similar network architecture and learning hyper-parameters.

Second, while the final layer in the earlier network used sigmoid activations and the cross-entropy cost function, the current network uses a softmax final layer, and the log-likelihood cost function.

I haven't made this switch for any particularly deep reason - mostly, I've done it because softmax plus log-likelihood cost is more common in modern image classification networks.

In this architecture, we can think of the convolutional and pooling layers as learning about local spatial structure in the input training image, while the later, fully-connected layer learns at a more abstract level, integrating global information from across the entire image.

filter_shape=(20, 1, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2)),

validation_data, test_data)

Can we improve on the $98.78$ percent classification accuracy?

filter_shape=(20, 1, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2)),

filter_shape=(40, 20, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2)),

validation_data, test_data)

In fact, you can think of the second convolutional-pooling layer as having as input $12 \times 12$ 'images', whose 'pixels' represent the presence (or absence) of particular localized features in the original input image.

The output from the previous layer involves $20$ separate feature maps, and so there are $20 \times 12 \times 12$ inputs to the second convolutional-pooling layer.

In fact, we'll allow each neuron in this layer to learn from all $20 \times 5 \times 5$ input neurons in its local receptive field.

More informally: the feature detectors in the second convolutional-pooling layer have access to all the features from the previous layer, but only within their particular local receptive field* *This issue would have arisen in the first layer if the input images were in color.

In that case we'd have 3 input features for each pixel, corresponding to red, green and blue channels in the input image.

So we'd allow the feature detectors to have access to all color information, but only within a given local receptive field..

Problem Using the tanh activation function Several times earlier in the book I've mentioned arguments that the tanh function may be a better activation function than the sigmoid function.

Try training the network with tanh activations in the convolutional and fully-connected layers* *Note that you can pass activation_fn=tanh as a parameter to the ConvPoolLayer and FullyConnectedLayer classes..

Try plotting the per-epoch validation accuracies for both tanh- and sigmoid-based networks, all the way out to $60$ epochs.

If your results are similar to mine, you'll find the tanh networks train a little faster, but the final accuracies are very similar.

Can you get a similar training speed with the sigmoid, perhaps by changing the learning rate, or doing some rescaling* *You may perhaps find inspiration in recalling that $\sigma(z) = (1+\tanh(z/2))/2$.?

Try a half-dozen iterations on the learning hyper-parameters or network architecture, searching for ways that tanh may be superior to the sigmoid.

Personally, I did not find much advantage in switching to tanh, although I haven't experimented exhaustively, and perhaps you may find a way.

In any case, in a moment we will find an advantage in switching to the rectified linear activation function, and so we won't go any deeper into the use of tanh.

Using rectified linear units: The network we've developed at this point is actually a variant of one of the networks used in the seminal 1998 paper* *'Gradient-based learning applied to document recognition', by Yann LeCun, Léon Bottou, Yoshua Bengio, and Patrick Haffner (1998).

filter_shape=(20, 1, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

filter_shape=(40, 20, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

However, across all my experiments I found that networks based on rectified linear units consistently outperformed networks based on sigmoid activation functions.

The reason for that recent adoption is empirical: a few people tried rectified linear units, often on the basis of hunches or heuristic arguments* *A common justification is that $\max(0, z)$ doesn't saturate in the limit of large $z$, unlike sigmoid neurons, and this helps rectified linear units continue learning.

A simple way of expanding the training data is to displace each training image by a single pixel, either up one pixel, down one pixel, left one pixel, or right one pixel.

filter_shape=(20, 1, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

filter_shape=(40, 20, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

Just to remind you of the flavour of some of the results in that earlier discussion: in 2003 Simard, Steinkraus and Platt* *Best Practices for Convolutional Neural Networks Applied to Visual Document Analysis, by Patrice Simard, Dave Steinkraus, and John Platt (2003).

improved their MNIST performance to $99.6$ percent using a neural network otherwise very similar to ours, using two convolutional-pooling layers, followed by a hidden fully-connected layer with $100$ neurons.

There were a few differences of detail in their architecture - they didn't have the advantage of using rectified linear units, for instance - but the key to their improved performance was expanding the training data.

filter_shape=(20, 1, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

filter_shape=(40, 20, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

filter_shape=(20, 1, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

filter_shape=(40, 20, 5, 5),

poolsize=(2, 2),

activation_fn=ReLU),

Using this, we obtain an accuracy of $99.60$ percent, which is a substantial improvement over our earlier results, especially our main benchmark, the network with $100$ hidden neurons, where we achieved $99.37$ percent.

In fact, I tried experiments with both $300$ and $1,000$ hidden neurons, and obtained (very slightly) better validation performance with $1,000$ hidden neurons.

Why we only applied dropout to the fully-connected layers: If you look carefully at the code above, you'll notice that we applied dropout only to the fully-connected section of the network, not to the convolutional layers.

But apart from that, they used few other tricks, including no convolutional layers: it was a plain, vanilla network, of the kind that, with enough patience, could have been trained in the 1980s (if the MNIST data set had existed), given enough computing power.

In particular, we saw that the gradient tends to be quite unstable: as we move from the output layer to earlier layers the gradient tends to either vanish (the vanishing gradient problem) or explode (the exploding gradient problem).

In particular, in our final experiments we trained for $40$ epochs using a data set $5$ times larger than the raw MNIST training data.

I've occasionally heard people adopt a deeper-than-thou attitude, holding that if you're not keeping-up-with-the-Joneses in terms of number of hidden layers, then you're not really doing deep learning.

To speed that process up you may find it helpful to revisit Chapter 3's discussion of how to choose a neural network's hyper-parameters, and perhaps also to look at some of the further reading suggested in that section.

Here's the code (discussion below)* *Note added November 2016: several readers have noted that in the line initializing self.w, I set scale=np.sqrt(1.0/n_out), when the arguments of Chapter 3 suggest a better initialization may be scale=np.sqrt(1.0/n_in).

np.random.normal(

loc=0.0, scale=np.sqrt(1.0/n_out), size=(n_in, n_out)),

dtype=theano.config.floatX),

dtype=theano.config.floatX),

I use the name inpt rather than input because input is a built-in function in Python, and messing with built-ins tends to cause unpredictable behavior and difficult-to-diagnose bugs.

So self.inpt_dropout and self.output_dropout are used during training, while self.inpt and self.output are used for all other purposes, e.g., evaluating accuracy on the validation and test data.

prev_layer, layer = self.layers[j-1], self.layers[j]

prev_layer.output, prev_layer.output_dropout, self.mini_batch_size)

Now, this isn't a Theano tutorial, and so we won't get too deeply into what it means that these are symbolic variables* *The Theano documentation provides a good introduction to Theano.

0.5*lmbda*l2_norm_squared/num_training_batches

self.x:

training_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size],

self.y:

training_y[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

self.x:

validation_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size],

self.y:

validation_y[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

self.x:

test_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size],

self.y:

test_y[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

self.x:

test_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

iteration = num_training_batches*epoch+minibatch_index

if iteration

print(&quot;Training mini-batch number {0}&quot;.format(iteration))

cost_ij = train_mb(minibatch_index)

if (iteration+1)

validation_accuracy = np.mean(

[validate_mb_accuracy(j) for j in xrange(num_validation_batches)])

print(&quot;Epoch {0}: validation accuracy {1:.2

epoch, validation_accuracy))

if validation_accuracy &gt;= best_validation_accuracy:

print(&quot;This is the best validation accuracy to date.&quot;)

best_validation_accuracy = validation_accuracy

best_iteration = iteration

if test_data:

test_accuracy = np.mean(

[test_mb_accuracy(j) for j in xrange(num_test_batches)])

print(&#39;The corresponding test accuracy is {0:.2

test_accuracy))

0.5*lmbda*l2_norm_squared/num_training_batches

In these lines we symbolically set up the regularized log-likelihood cost function, compute the corresponding derivatives in the gradient function, as well as the corresponding parameter updates.

With all these things defined, the stage is set to define the train_mb function, a Theano symbolic function which uses the updates to update the Network parameters, given a mini-batch index.

The remainder of the SGD method is self-explanatory - we simply iterate over the epochs, repeatedly training the network on mini-batches of training data, and computing the validation and test accuracies.

prev_layer, layer = self.layers[j-1], self.layers[j]

prev_layer.output, prev_layer.output_dropout, self.mini_batch_size)

0.5*lmbda*l2_norm_squared/num_training_batches

self.x:

training_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size],

self.y:

training_y[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

self.x:

validation_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size],

self.y:

validation_y[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

self.x:

test_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size],

self.y:

test_y[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

self.x:

test_x[i*self.mini_batch_size: (i+1)*self.mini_batch_size]

iteration = num_training_batches*epoch+minibatch_index

if iteration % 1000 == 0:

print(&quot;Training mini-batch number {0}&quot;.format(iteration))

cost_ij = train_mb(minibatch_index)

if (iteration+1) % num_training_batches == 0:

validation_accuracy = np.mean(

[validate_mb_accuracy(j) for j in xrange(num_validation_batches)])

print(&quot;Epoch {0}: validation accuracy {1:.2%}&quot;.format(

epoch, validation_accuracy))

if validation_accuracy &gt;= best_validation_accuracy:

print(&quot;This is the best validation accuracy to date.&quot;)

best_validation_accuracy = validation_accuracy

best_iteration = iteration

if test_data:

test_accuracy = np.mean(

[test_mb_accuracy(j) for j in xrange(num_test_batches)])

print(&#39;The corresponding test accuracy is {0:.2%}&#39;.format(

test_accuracy))

activation_fn=sigmoid):

of filters, the number of input feature maps, the filter height, and the

poolsize is a tuple of length 2, whose entries are the y and

np.random.normal(loc=0, scale=np.sqrt(1.0/n_out), size=filter_shape),

dtype=theano.config.floatX),

np.random.normal(loc=0, scale=1.0, size=(filter_shape[0],)),

dtype=theano.config.floatX),

pooled_out + self.b.dimshuffle(&#39;x&#39;, 0, &#39;x&#39;, &#39;x&#39;))

np.random.normal(

loc=0.0, scale=np.sqrt(1.0/n_out), size=(n_in, n_out)),

dtype=theano.config.floatX),

dtype=theano.config.floatX),

Earlier in the book we discussed an automated way of selecting the number of epochs to train for, known as early stopping.

Hint: After working on this problem for a while, you may find it useful to see the discussion at this link.

Earlier in the chapter I described a technique for expanding the training data by applying (small) rotations, skewing, and translation.

Note: Unless you have a tremendous amount of memory, it is not practical to explicitly generate the entire expanded data set.

Show that rescaling all the weights in the network by a constant factor $c > 0$ simply rescales the outputs by a factor $c^{L-1}$, where $L$ is the number of layers.

Still, considering the problem will help you better understand networks containing rectified linear units.

Note: The word good in the second part of this makes the problem a research problem.

In 1998, the year MNIST was introduced, it took weeks to train a state-of-the-art workstation to achieve accuracies substantially worse than those we can achieve using a GPU and less than an hour of training.

With that said, the past few years have seen extraordinary improvements using deep nets to attack extremely difficult image recognition tasks.

They will identify the years 2011 to 2015 (and probably a few years beyond) as a time of huge breakthroughs, driven by deep convolutional nets.

The 2012 LRMD paper: Let me start with a 2012 paper* *Building high-level features using large scale unsupervised learning, by Quoc Le, Marc'Aurelio Ranzato, Rajat Monga, Matthieu Devin, Kai Chen, Greg Corrado, Jeff Dean, and Andrew Ng (2012).

Note that the detailed architecture of the network used in the paper differed in many details from the deep convolutional networks we've been studying.

Details about ImageNet are available in the original ImageNet paper, ImageNet: a large-scale hierarchical image database, by Jia Deng, Wei Dong, Richard Socher, Li-Jia Li, Kai Li, and Li Fei-Fei (2009).:

If you're looking for a challenge, I encourage you to visit ImageNet's list of hand tools, which distinguishes between beading planes, block planes, chamfer planes, and about a dozen other types of plane, amongst other categories.

The 2012 KSH paper: The work of LRMD was followed by a 2012 paper of Krizhevsky, Sutskever and Hinton (KSH)* *ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks, by Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey E.

By this top-$5$ criterion, KSH's deep convolutional network achieved an accuracy of $84.7$ percent, vastly better than the next-best contest entry, which achieved an accuracy of $73.8$ percent.

The input layer contains $3 \times 224 \times 224$ neurons, representing the RGB values for a $224 \times 224$ image.

The feature maps are split into two groups of $48$ each, with the first $48$ feature maps residing on one GPU, and the second $48$ feature maps residing on the other GPU.

Their respectives parameters are: (3) $384$ feature maps, with $3 \times 3$ local receptive fields, and $256$ input channels;

A Theano-based implementation has also been developed* *Theano-based large-scale visual recognition with multiple GPUs, by Weiguang Ding, Ruoyan Wang, Fei Mao, and Graham Taylor (2014)., with the code available here.

As in 2012, it involved a training set of $1.2$ million images, in $1,000$ categories, and the figure of merit was whether the top $5$ predictions included the correct category.

The winning team, based primarily at Google* *Going deeper with convolutions, by Christian Szegedy, Wei Liu, Yangqing Jia, Pierre Sermanet, Scott Reed, Dragomir Anguelov, Dumitru Erhan, Vincent Vanhoucke, and Andrew Rabinovich (2014)., used a deep convolutional network with $22$ layers of neurons.

GoogLeNet achieved a top-5 accuracy of $93.33$ percent, a giant improvement over the 2013 winner (Clarifai, with $88.3$ percent), and the 2012 winner (KSH, with $84.7$ percent).

In 2014 a team of researchers wrote a survey paper about the ILSVRC competition* *ImageNet large scale visual recognition challenge, by Olga Russakovsky, Jia Deng, Hao Su, Jonathan Krause, Sanjeev Satheesh, Sean Ma, Zhiheng Huang, Andrej Karpathy, Aditya Khosla, Michael Bernstein, Alexander C.

...the task of labeling images with 5 out of 1000 categories quickly turned out to be extremely challenging, even for some friends in the lab who have been working on ILSVRC and its classes for a while.

In the end I realized that to get anywhere competitively close to GoogLeNet, it was most efficient if I sat down and went through the painfully long training process and the subsequent careful annotation process myself...

Some images are easily recognized, while some images (such as those of fine-grained breeds of dogs, birds, or monkeys) can require multiple minutes of concentrated effort.

In other words, an expert human, working painstakingly, was with great effort able to narrowly beat the deep neural network.

In fact, Karpathy reports that a second human expert, trained on a smaller sample of images, was only able to attain a $12.0$ percent top-5 error rate, significantly below GoogLeNet's performance.

One encouraging practical set of results comes from a team at Google, who applied deep convolutional networks to the problem of recognizing street numbers in Google's Street View imagery* *Multi-digit Number Recognition from Street View Imagery using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks, by Ian J.

And they go on to make the broader claim: 'We believe with this model we have solved [optical character recognition] for short sequences [of characters] for many applications.'

For instance, a 2013 paper* *Intriguing properties of neural networks, by Christian Szegedy, Wojciech Zaremba, Ilya Sutskever, Joan Bruna, Dumitru Erhan, Ian Goodfellow, and Rob Fergus (2013) showed that deep networks may suffer from what are effectively blind spots.

The existence of the adversarial negatives appears to be in contradiction with the network’s ability to achieve high generalization performance.

The explanation is that the set of adversarial negatives is of extremely low probability, and thus is never (or rarely) observed in the test set, yet it is dense (much like the rational numbers), and so it is found near virtually every test case.

For example, one recent paper* *Deep Neural Networks are Easily Fooled: High Confidence Predictions for Unrecognizable Images, by Anh Nguyen, Jason Yosinski, and Jeff Clune (2014).

shows that given a trained network it's possible to generate images which look to a human like white noise, but which the network classifies as being in a known category with a very high degree of confidence.

If you read the neural networks literature, you'll run into many ideas we haven't discussed: recurrent neural networks, Boltzmann machines, generative models, transfer learning, reinforcement learning, and so on, on and on $\ldots$ and on!

One way RNNs are currently being used is to connect neural networks more closely to traditional ways of thinking about algorithms, ways of thinking based on concepts such as Turing machines and (conventional) programming languages.

A 2014 paper developed an RNN which could take as input a character-by-character description of a (very, very simple!) Python program, and use that description to predict the output.

For example, an approach based on deep nets has achieved outstanding results on large vocabulary continuous speech recognition.

And another system based on deep nets has been deployed in Google's Android operating system (for related technical work, see Vincent Vanhoucke's 2012-2015 papers).

Many other ideas used in feedforward nets, ranging from regularization techniques to convolutions to the activation and cost functions used, are also useful in recurrent nets.

Deep belief nets, generative models, and Boltzmann machines: Modern interest in deep learning began in 2006, with papers explaining how to train a type of neural network known as a deep belief network (DBN)* *See A fast learning algorithm for deep belief nets, by Geoffrey Hinton, Simon Osindero, and Yee-Whye Teh (2006), as well as the related work in Reducing the dimensionality of data with neural networks, by Geoffrey Hinton and Ruslan Salakhutdinov (2006)..

A generative model like a DBN can be used in a similar way, but it's also possible to specify the values of some of the feature neurons and then 'run the network backward', generating values for the input activations.

And the ability to do unsupervised learning is extremely interesting both for fundamental scientific reasons, and - if it can be made to work well enough - for practical applications.

Active areas of research include using neural networks to do natural language processing (see also this informative review paper), machine translation, as well as perhaps more surprising applications such as music informatics.

In many cases, having read this book you should be able to begin following recent work, although (of course) you'll need to fill in gaps in presumed background knowledge.

It combines deep convolutional networks with a technique known as reinforcement learning in order to learn to play video games well (see also this followup).

The idea is to use the convolutional network to simplify the pixel data from the game screen, turning it into a simpler set of features, which can be used to decide which action to take: 'go left', 'go down', 'fire', and so on.

What is particularly interesting is that a single network learned to play seven different classic video games pretty well, outperforming human experts on three of the games.

But looking past the surface gloss, consider that this system is taking raw pixel data - it doesn't even know the game rules!

Google CEO Larry Page once described the perfect search engine as understanding exactly what [your queries] mean and giving you back exactly what you want.

In this vision, instead of responding to users' literal queries, search will use machine learning to take vague user input, discern precisely what was meant, and take action on the basis of those insights.

Over the next few decades, thousands of companies will build products which use machine learning to make user interfaces that can tolerate imprecision, while discerning and acting on the user's true intent.

Inspired user interface design is hard, and I expect many companies will take powerful machine learning technology and use it to build insipid user interfaces.

Machine learning, data science, and the virtuous circle of innovation: Of course, machine learning isn't just being used to build intention-driven interfaces.

But I do want to mention one consequence of this fashion that is not so often remarked: over the long run it's possible the biggest breakthrough in machine learning won't be any single conceptual breakthrough.

If a company can invest 1 dollar in machine learning research and get 1 dollar and 10 cents back reasonably rapidly, then a lot of money will end up in machine learning research.

So, for example, Conway's law suggests that the design of a Boeing 747 aircraft will mirror the extended organizational structure of Boeing and its contractors at the time the 747 was designed.

If the application's dashboard is supposed to be integrated with some machine learning algorithm, the person building the dashboard better be talking to the company's machine learning expert.

I won't define 'deep ideas' precisely, but loosely I mean the kind of idea which is the basis for a rich field of enquiry.

The backpropagation algorithm and the germ theory of disease are both good examples.: think of things like the germ theory of disease, for instance, or the understanding of how antibodies work, or the understanding that the heart, lungs, veins and arteries form a complete cardiovascular system.

Instead of a monolith, we have fields within fields within fields, a complex, recursive, self-referential social structure, whose organization mirrors the connections between our deepest insights.

Deep learning is the latest super-special weapon I've heard used in such arguments* *Interestingly, often not by leading experts in deep learning, who have been quite restrained.

And there is paper after paper leveraging the same basic set of ideas: using stochastic gradient descent (or a close variation) to optimize a cost function.

## Deep learning

Deep learning (also known as deep structured learning or hierarchical learning) is part of a broader family of machine learning methods based on learning data representations, as opposed to task-specific algorithms.

Deep learning architectures such as deep neural networks, deep belief networks and recurrent neural networks have been applied to fields including computer vision, speech recognition, natural language processing, audio recognition, social network filtering, machine translation, bioinformatics, drug design and board game programs, where they have produced results comparable to and in some cases superior to human experts.&#91;4&#93;&#91;5&#93;&#91;6&#93;

Deep learning models are vaguely inspired by information processing and communication patterns in biological nervous systems yet have various differences from the structural and functional properties of biological brains, which make them incompatible with neuroscience evidences.&#91;7&#93;&#91;8&#93;&#91;9&#93;

Most modern deep learning models are based on an artificial neural network, although they can also include propositional formulas or latent variables organized layer-wise in deep generative models such as the nodes in Deep Belief Networks and Deep Boltzmann Machines.&#91;11&#93;

No universally agreed upon threshold of depth divides shallow learning from deep learning, but most researchers agree that deep learning involves CAP depth &gt;

For supervised learning tasks, deep learning methods obviate feature engineering, by translating the data into compact intermediate representations akin to principal components, and derive layered structures that remove redundancy in representation.

The universal approximation theorem concerns the capacity of feedforward neural networks with a single hidden layer of finite size to approximate continuous functions.&#91;15&#93;&#91;16&#93;&#91;17&#93;&#91;18&#93;&#91;19&#93;

By 1991 such systems were used for recognizing isolated 2-D hand-written digits, while recognizing 3-D objects was done by matching 2-D images with a handcrafted 3-D object model.

But while Neocognitron required a human programmer to hand-merge features, Cresceptron learned an open number of features in each layer without supervision, where each feature is represented by a convolution kernel.

In 1994, André de Carvalho, together with Mike Fairhurst and David Bisset, published experimental results of a multi-layer boolean neural network, also known as a weightless neural network, composed of a 3-layers self-organising feature extraction neural network module (SOFT) followed by a multi-layer classification neural network module (GSN), which were independently trained.

In 1995, Brendan Frey demonstrated that it was possible to train (over two days) a network containing six fully connected layers and several hundred hidden units using the wake-sleep algorithm, co-developed with Peter Dayan and Hinton.&#91;39&#93;

Simpler models that use task-specific handcrafted features such as Gabor filters and support vector machines (SVMs) were a popular choice in the 1990s and 2000s, because of ANNs' computational cost and a lack of understanding of how the brain wires its biological networks.

These methods never outperformed non-uniform internal-handcrafting Gaussian mixture model/Hidden Markov model (GMM-HMM) technology based on generative models of speech trained discriminatively.&#91;45&#93;

The principle of elevating 'raw' features over hand-crafted optimization was first explored successfully in the architecture of deep autoencoder on the 'raw' spectrogram or linear filter-bank features in the late 1990s,&#91;48&#93;

Many aspects of speech recognition were taken over by a deep learning method called long short-term memory (LSTM), a recurrent neural network published by Hochreiter and Schmidhuber in 1997.&#91;50&#93;

showed how a many-layered feedforward neural network could be effectively pre-trained one layer at a time, treating each layer in turn as an unsupervised restricted Boltzmann machine, then fine-tuning it using supervised backpropagation.&#91;58&#93;

The impact of deep learning in industry began in the early 2000s, when CNNs already processed an estimated 10% to 20% of all the checks written in the US, according to Yann LeCun.&#91;67&#93;

was motivated by the limitations of deep generative models of speech, and the possibility that given more capable hardware and large-scale data sets that deep neural nets (DNN) might become practical.

However, it was discovered that replacing pre-training with large amounts of training data for straightforward backpropagation when using DNNs with large, context-dependent output layers produced error rates dramatically lower than then-state-of-the-art Gaussian mixture model (GMM)/Hidden Markov Model (HMM) and also than more-advanced generative model-based systems.&#91;59&#93;&#91;70&#93;

offering technical insights into how to integrate deep learning into the existing highly efficient, run-time speech decoding system deployed by all major speech recognition systems.&#91;10&#93;&#91;72&#93;&#91;73&#93;

In 2010, researchers extended deep learning from TIMIT to large vocabulary speech recognition, by adopting large output layers of the DNN based on context-dependent HMM states constructed by decision trees.&#91;75&#93;&#91;76&#93;&#91;77&#93;&#91;72&#93;

In 2009, Nvidia was involved in what was called the “big bang” of deep learning, “as deep-learning neural networks were trained with Nvidia graphics processing units (GPUs).”&#91;78&#93;

In 2014, Hochreiter's group used deep learning to detect off-target and toxic effects of environmental chemicals in nutrients, household products and drugs and won the 'Tox21 Data Challenge' of NIH, FDA and NCATS.&#91;87&#93;&#91;88&#93;&#91;89&#93;

Although CNNs trained by backpropagation had been around for decades, and GPU implementations of NNs for years, including CNNs, fast implementations of CNNs with max-pooling on GPUs in the style of Ciresan and colleagues were needed to progress on computer vision.&#91;80&#93;&#91;81&#93;&#91;34&#93;&#91;90&#93;&#91;2&#93;

In November 2012, Ciresan et al.'s system also won the ICPR contest on analysis of large medical images for cancer detection, and in the following year also the MICCAI Grand Challenge on the same topic.&#91;92&#93;

In 2013 and 2014, the error rate on the ImageNet task using deep learning was further reduced, following a similar trend in large-scale speech recognition.

For example, in image recognition, they might learn to identify images that contain cats by analyzing example images that have been manually labeled as 'cat' or 'no cat' and using the analytic results to identify cats in other images.

Over time, attention focused on matching specific mental abilities, leading to deviations from biology such as backpropagation, or passing information in the reverse direction and adjusting the network to reflect that information.

Neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis.

Despite this number being several order of magnitude less than the number of neurons on a human brain, these networks can perform many tasks at a level beyond that of humans (e.g., recognizing faces, playing 'Go'&#91;99&#93;

The extra layers enable composition of features from lower layers, potentially modeling complex data with fewer units than a similarly performing shallow network.&#91;11&#93;

The training process can be guaranteed to converge in one step with a new batch of data, and the computational complexity of the training algorithm is linear with respect to the number of neurons involved.&#91;115&#93;&#91;116&#93;

that involve multi-second intervals containing speech events separated by thousands of discrete time steps, where one time step corresponds to about 10 ms.

All major commercial speech recognition systems (e.g., Microsoft Cortana, Xbox, Skype Translator, Amazon Alexa, Google Now, Apple Siri, Baidu and iFlyTek voice search, and a range of Nuance speech products, etc.) are based on deep learning.&#91;10&#93;&#91;122&#93;&#91;123&#93;&#91;124&#93;

DNNs have proven themselves capable, for example, of a) identifying the style period of a given painting, b) 'capturing' the style of a given painting and applying it in a visually pleasing manner to an arbitrary photograph, and c) generating striking imagery based on random visual input fields.&#91;128&#93;&#91;129&#93;

Word embedding, such as word2vec, can be thought of as a representational layer in a deep learning architecture that transforms an atomic word into a positional representation of the word relative to other words in the dataset;

Finding the appropriate mobile audience for mobile advertising is always challenging, since many data points must be considered and assimilated before a target segment can be created and used in ad serving by any ad server.&#91;161&#93;&#91;162&#93;

'Deep anti-money laundering detection system can spot and recognize relationships and similarities between data and, further down the road, learn to detect anomalies or classify and predict specific events'.

Deep learning is closely related to a class of theories of brain development (specifically, neocortical development) proposed by cognitive neuroscientists in the early 1990s.&#91;165&#93;&#91;166&#93;&#91;167&#93;&#91;168&#93;

These developmental models share the property that various proposed learning dynamics in the brain (e.g., a wave of nerve growth factor) support the self-organization somewhat analogous to the neural networks utilized in deep learning models.

Like the neocortex, neural networks employ a hierarchy of layered filters in which each layer considers information from a prior layer (or the operating environment), and then passes its output (and possibly the original input), to other layers.

Other researchers have argued that unsupervised forms of deep learning, such as those based on hierarchical generative models and deep belief networks, may be closer to biological reality.&#91;172&#93;&#91;173&#93;

Such techniques lack ways of representing causal relationships (...) have no obvious ways of performing logical inferences, and they are also still a long way from integrating abstract knowledge, such as information about what objects are, what they are for, and how they are typically used.

systems, like Watson (...) use techniques like deep learning as just one element in a very complicated ensemble of techniques, ranging from the statistical technique of Bayesian inference to deductive reasoning.'&#91;187&#93;

As an alternative to this emphasis on the limits of deep learning, one author speculated that it might be possible to train a machine vision stack to perform the sophisticated task of discriminating between 'old master' and amateur figure drawings, and hypothesized that such a sensitivity might represent the rudiments of a non-trivial machine empathy.&#91;188&#93;

In further reference to the idea that artistic sensitivity might inhere within relatively low levels of the cognitive hierarchy, a published series of graphic representations of the internal states of deep (20-30 layers) neural networks attempting to discern within essentially random data the images on which they were trained&#91;190&#93;

Learning a grammar (visual or linguistic) from training data would be equivalent to restricting the system to commonsense reasoning that operates on concepts in terms of grammatical production rules and is a basic goal of both human language acquisition&#91;196&#93;

Such a manipulation is termed an “adversarial attack.” In 2016 researchers used one ANN to doctor images in trial and error fashion, identify another's focal points and thereby generate images that deceived it.

Another group showed that certain psychedelic spectacles could fool a facial recognition system into thinking ordinary people were celebrities, potentially allowing one person to impersonate another.

ANNs can however be further trained to detect attempts at deception, potentially leading attackers and defenders into an arms race similar to the kind that already defines the malware defense industry.

ANNs have been trained to defeat ANN-based anti-malware software by repeatedly attacking a defense with malware that was continually altered by a genetic algorithm until it tricked the anti-malware while retaining its ability to damage the target.&#91;198&#93;

## Image Data Pre-Processing for Neural Networks

Deep learning has truly come into the mainstream in the past few years.

Deep learning uses neural nets with a lot of hidden layers (dozens in today’s state of the art), and requires large amounts of training data.

These models have been particularly effective in gaining insight and approaching human level accuracy in perceptual tasks like vision, speech, language processing.

Primarily two phenomena have contributed to the rise of machine learning a) Availability of huge data-sets/training examples in multiple domains and b) Advances in raw compute power and the rise of efficient parallel hardware.

Building an effective neural network model requires careful consideration of the network architecture as well as the input data format.

The most common image data input parameters are the number of images, image height, image width, number of channels, and number of levels per pixel.

Most of the neural network models assume a square shape input image, which means that each image need to be checked if it is a square or not, and cropped appropriately.

Mean, standard deviation of input data: Sometimes it’s useful to look at the ‘mean image’ obtained by taking the mean values for each pixel across all training examples.

Normalizing image inputs: Data normalization is an important step which ensures that each input parameter (pixel, in this case) has a similar data distribution.

For image inputs we need the pixel numbers to be positive, so we might choose to scale the normalized data in the range [0,1] or [0, 255].

There are often considerations to reduce other dimensions, when the neural network performance is allowed to be invariant to that dimension, or to make the training problem more tractable.

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